The Orthodox Approach To Development Politics Essay

The Orthodox Approach To Development Politics Essay Poverty does not have one clear definition. It is a complicated, multi-faceted concept. For this essay the term poverty will be used to mean a lack of access to basic resources including food, clean water, sanitation, education and capital. The term absolute poverty signifies a population that is living below $1 (U.S) a day; therefore over 1.2 billion people on Earth are living in absolute poverty. Relative poverty is poverty within a country. Although New Zealand has a high human development, there are still people within the country who are relatively poor, compared with richer people in the country. These relatively poor people are not living in absolute poverty but can be considered poor and are therefore living in relative poverty. The orthodox approach to development sees poverty as a situation suffered by people who do not have the money to buy food and satisfy other basic material needs. The alternative view of development sees poverty as a situation suffered by people who are not able to meet their material and non-material needs through their own effort. This alternative places much more emphasis on community and non-material needs, like self-reliance and a sense of community. There are many causes and effects of poverty. The most obvious effect of poverty is hunger, however hunger can also be a cause of poverty. This is because hunger deprives those living in absolute poverty of the skill and strength to carry out productive work. The latest estimates suggest that about eight hundred and forty million people were undernourished between 1998 and 2000. Millions of people, including over six million children under the age of five, die each year as a result of hunger. One in seven children born in countries where hunger, and therefore poverty, is most common will die before reaching the age of five. Hunger affects mental and physical growth, causing undernourished smaller and slighter body frames, which in turn earn less in jobs involving physical labour, contributing to the overall poverty of a country and community. Voicelessness/powerlessness is a cause and effect of poverty because people living in absolute poverty often have no political power and are subjected to exploitation by the state. They lack protection, and report widespread corruption within state education and health care systems. Poor people in many countries speak of being kept waiting endlessly while the rich of the country go to the head of the queue. Situations like these create more problems for those already in absolute poverty, and continue to divide the rich from the poor without providing any help. The problem with a lack of voice and power as a cause of poverty is that it enforces a lack of voice and power as an effect of poverty, creating a continuous cycle that deliberately separates the poor of a country from the rich. The last major cause and effect of poverty that is covered in this essay is vulnerability. Natural disasters, economic crises, and conflict leave the poor very vulnerable, with nobody to help and a lack of resources to use to help themselves. This idea is best expressed through the story of a poor villager from Benin, in the World Development Report 2000/2001: Attacking Poverty. Three years ago was a very bad year. The flood washed away all our crops, and there was a lot of hunger around here, to the point that many people actually died of hunger. They must have been at least a dozen, mostly children and old people. Nobody could help them. Their relatives in the village had no food either; nobody had enough food for his own children, let alone the food for the children of his brother or cousin. And few had a richer relative somewhere else who could help. This is a perfect example of the vulnerability that is both a cause and effect of poverty. The relatively poor can become absolutel y poor through disasters, both economic and natural, and conflict, which causes more vulnerability that affects their ability to escape poverty. Poverty and conflict are often closely linked. In many developing countries there are huge contrasts in access to power and control of resources, leading to a sense of voicelessness/powerlessness within the poor of the country. This unfair distribution of wealth, power and often land creates conflict, as those with the advantage battle the disadvantaged in order to maintain their advantages. In El Salvador, during the 1980s, Oxfam worked to alleviate poverty and suffering intensified by years of armed conflict. The roots of this conflict lay in the unequal distribution of power, wealth and resources. Poverty causes, and is effected by, many different other global issues. A set of international development goals were created by the United Nations, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank, to address inequities in income, education, access to health care and the inequalities between men and women. In 2000 these goals were updated and the United Nations Millennium Declaration committed all countries to doing everything possible to eradicate poverty, promote human dignity and equality, and achieve peace, environmental sustainability, and democracy. At this time approximately 1.2 billion people were living on less than $1 (U.S) a day, with an additional 1.6 billion living on less that $2 (U.S) a day. The goal to reduce poverty was seen as an essential part of the way forward. It is crucial to understand why this is seen as a fundamental step and to do this one should look into some of the arguments aga inst helping the poor that philosophers and political theorists pose. The basic lifeboat ethics argument against helping the poor, argued by Garrett Hardin, states that the world is like a lifeboat. In a lifeboat there is a limit to how many people can be carried, and there is no fair way to choose from among those who need to come aboard. Therefore the only fair alternative is to let everyone who needs to come aboard drown. What Hardin is getting at is that we, the developed world, can not save every person, and therefore how can we fairly choose those that we do save and those that we do not. He argues that it would be much fairer to let everyone in absolute poverty die. Other arguments against helping the poor include Friedrich von Hayeks Game of Catalaxy. Hayeks theory stems from a liberal laissez-faire view of the global economy. He believed that the global market should characterized by a spontaneous order that happens when individuals pursue their own ends within a framework set by law and tradition. Hayek goes on to argue that his Game of Catalaxy is a game of skill and all players within the global market are different and therefore not all can win. The winners, he believed, won because they took certain chances and therefore deserved to win, while the losers deserved to lose. Therefore, according to Hayek, countries that have problems with absolute poverty have played the Game of Catalaxy and lost, and deserve to lose. Theoretically these countries will continue to play the game and if they take certain chances they may eventually win. This theory may work but meanwhile the problem of absolute poverty is affecting the rest of the world and therefore we cannot ignore it, or let the Game of Catalaxy sort it out. As Ambassador Jams head Marker, the Permanent Representative of Pakistan to the United Nations, says, We are all now in the same lifeboat. The continued health of the North [developed, rich countries] depends on the survival and sustainable development of the South [less developed, poorer countries]. Beyond this argument is a belief that food is a basic human right. If hunger is a cause and effect of poverty and food is a basic human right, then theoretically every country should be doing everything within their power to reduce poverty and create a well-nourished world. This argument is reflected in the Millennium Development Goals. The United Nations believes that food is a basic human right. On December 10, 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This declaration is the only human rights declaration with universal in its name, and most countries have agreed on it. It can therefore be argued as a legitimate international agreement on the rights of all human beings. Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services. Therefore, since the declaration is argued to be a legitimate international agreement on the rights of humans, it can be argued that food, along with other basic necessities, are basic human rights. The orthodox approach to development is the view held by many international regimes like the World Bank and United Nations Development Program (UNDP). The basic concepts behind it are the ideas that the free-market system can create unlimited economic growth, that the Western liberal model and knowledge are superior to anything else, and the belief that the process of free-markets would benefit everyone. Theoretically economies would slowly take-off because of the free-market and from there on the wealth would work its way down to the people actually living in absolute poverty. To do this there would be a production of surplus, with individuals selling their lab our for money, as opposed to producing to meet their family and community needs. This orthodox method is known as the top-down liberal method and relies on external expert knowledge, technology, an expansion of privatization, and large capital investments. As already stated, the orthodox approach is based almost entirely on a monetary and material concept of poverty. In 2000: A Better World For All, the World Bank, United Nations (UN), International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) state that it is possible to cut poverty rates in half by 2015 if countries follow policies that both reduce social and gender inequalities and, most importantly, create income-earning opportunities for the poor. This is the key for, and a perfect example of, the orthodox approach to development. The UNDP Human Development Report 2003 states that there are six basic policies that should be implemented in order to help the countries reduce poverty. Firstly countries should invest early and ambitiously in basic education and health while fostering gender equality. These are preconditions to sustained economic growth. Second, countries should increase the productivity of small farmers in unfavorable environments [environments where hunger and famine are a problem]. Thirdly countries should improve basic infrastructu resto reduce the costs of doing business and overcome geographic barriers. The last three policies involve developing an industrial development policy, working on promoting democracy, and ensuring environmental sustainability. The World Bank concurs with these ideas, as does the World Trade Organization who state that poor people within a country generally gain from trade liberalization. The orthodox approach to development, portrayed by international regimes including the World Trade Organization, World Bank and United Nations involves liberalizing trade and creating empowerment in order to create faster economic growth, which in turn helps to alleviate poverty. This approach is both valid and sound, and has been proven to work in some countries, although not as quickly as the international regimes would like. As this approach is the dominant view, it is seen as more likely to work. However a number of development theorists have discovered problems within this dominant view. The idea that the free market can end hunger, if governments just get out of the way, is seen by some theorists as a myth. These theorists believe that the free-market-is-good/ government-is-bad view is far too simplistic and can never help address poverty and hunger. The top-down approach is seen as unlikely to work in most situations due to corrupt governments who will not let the wealth trickle down to those actually living in poverty. The theory of comparative advantage holds that nations should produce and export those goods and services in which they hold a comparative advantage and import those items that other nations could produce at a lower cost. The problem with this theory, which is also promoted by the World Bank, UN and IMF as a method for alleviating and reducing poverty, is that it falls apart when applied to the real world. Many countries living in absolute poverty can produce large amounts of coffee at a low cost to themselves, however since there are many producing, the price of coffee on the global market is forced downwards and these countries are producing more coffee for less money. These are just two examples of the kind of problems that make the orthodox method for development less viable. The alternative approach to development is argued by many NGOs like World Vision and the World Development Movement. The core concepts of this approach are the ideas that humans should learn to be self-reliant, that nature, cultural diversity and community-controlled commons (water, air, land, and forest) should be valued, and that democratic participation will help to reduce poverty. This approach relies on participation at the community level, working with local knowledge and technology to create a bottom-up approach to community development. It is a grassroots approach, focusing on helping individuals and communities become self-reliant. This approach is often argued by dependency theorists who believe that the structure of the global political economy essentially enslaves the less developed countries by making them dependent on the capitalist, liberal nations. The alternative approach to development is therefore seen by dependency theorists as one of the only ways to develop less developed countries. Much of the anti-globalist campaign is directed at organizations like the World Bank and IMF because their policies encourage less developed countries to become dependent on foreign aid and investment which continues the poverty and hunger within the less developed countries. Although the alternative approach to development also seems sound and viable, it lacks monetary value and places too much emphasis on the power of communities to change governments. Neither approach is perfect in its methods for the alleviation and reduction of poverty. I believe it is a combination of the orthodox and alternative approaches that really has the ability to help reduce poverty in todays world. The orthodox approach focuses too narrowly on money and capital, while the alternative approach believe too heavily in the power of communities to affect change at a national level. I therefore believe that international regimes, like the World Bank and United Nations, should attempt to affect changes at the state level, working to create democratic governments. Non-Governmental Organizations should continue to work at the grass roots level, affecting changes for the individuals and communities while helping them to become self-reliant. This approach is not without problems and cannot be called easy, but I believe it deals with both the individuals and the state at the levels needed and could help to halve the number of people living in poverty by 2015. Ther e are no perfect answers for development. Poverty is a complex issue. The key is that we do not ignore those living in poverty but help, in whatever way we believe is best. We are obliged to try our hardest to make circumstances better for them. http://www.vuwcu.orconhosting.net.nz/warp/poverty.htm

Imagery in Romeo and Juliet Essay

Both commit suicide rather than be separated by their families’ feud. The play has survived for centuries because of not only its captivating storyline but also its stirring phraseology. Shakespeare infuses Romeo and Juliet with various types of imagery – for example, celestial, religious, avian, and light and dark references – that provide metaphoric meaning, influence the spectators’ (or readers’) moods, and foreshadow the lamentable end. Heavenly imagery illuminates the brilliance of Romeo and Juliet’s relationship in the play. For example, Romeo says Juliet is like the sun, and that her eyes are â€Å"two of the fairest stars in all the heaven†¦ her eye in heaven/Would through the airy region stream so bright/That birds would sing and think it were not night† (2. 2. 15-23). Juliet states that Romeo should be â€Å"cut†¦ out in little stars† (3. 2. 24), and that daylight is â€Å"some meteor that the sun exhaled† (3. 5. 13). Humans have long been in awe of bright, dazzling astronomical objects like the meteors, stars, and sun that the lovers mention. With frequent celestial imagery, Shakespeare shows how beautiful and out-of-this-world Romeo and Juliet’s love is. Spiritual language, while emphasizing the purity of Romeo and Juliet’s love, also foreshadows their tragic fate. Romeo’s first discussion with Juliet is about Christian pilgrimage that illustrates how divine, almost flawlessly sacred, his devotion to her is, like the pious connection between a worshipper and God. To him, her hand is a â€Å"holy shrine† and his lips are â€Å"two blushing pilgrims† (1. 5. 105-106). He calls her a â€Å"dear saint† (1. 5. 114) and a â€Å"bright angel†¦ winged messenger of heaven† (2. 2. 29-31). His â€Å"pilgrim speech,† in which he convinces Juliet to let him kiss her, is written in sonnet form. The sonnet is the typical form of love poetry, and Shakespeare makes Romeo’s Christian language even more lyrical and beautiful. Later, their affection edges into blasphemy when Juliet names Romeo the â€Å"god of my idolatry† (2. 2. 119). Romeo and Juliet was written by Shakespeare in England, in Victorian times. His audience would have belonged to the Anglican Church, and surely would have noticed that Juliet’s statement is irreverent. Though her adulation is touching, Juliet seems to be replacing God with Romeo, with passion supplanting faith. The audience would have thought that the lovers’ unfortunate suicides could have been influenced by heavenly retribution. The religious undertones throughout the play serve both to highlight Romeo and Juliet’s love, and to warn of the disastrous consequences. Avian imagery influences the atmosphere of scenarios in Romeo and Juliet. At the balcony scene, when the sweethearts exchange their vows of love, they employ descriptions of birds to express the simple cuteness of their fondness. O, for a falc’ner’s voice/To lure this tassel-gentle back again! † (2. 2. 169-170) sighs Juliet, to which Romeo responds, â€Å"My nyas† (2. 2. 179, in some editions). Juliet also wishes that Romeo were â€Å"no farther than a wanton’s bird,/That lets it hop a little from his hand†¦ And with a silken thread plucks it back again† (2. 2. 191-194). The birds they speak of, tamed falcons and pets, are benign, even loved; speaking of them makes their declarations of love prettier. After their marriage, when Romeo has killed Tybalt and has been exiled permanently from Verona, Juliet’s references to birds grows bleaker. She starts off by pleading with Romeo to stay; â€Å"Nightly she sings on yond pomegranate. /Believe me, love, it was the nightingale† (3. 5. 4-5). Her language is still reminiscent of mellifluous sweetness, as is the scene: they have just spent the night together, and Romeo is only now leaving. But as daylight, and danger, approaches, the euphonious nightingale transforms into the cacophonous lark â€Å"that sings so out of tune,/Straining harsh discords and unpleasing sharps†¦ she divideth us† (3. 5. 27-30). Her remark about how unpleasing the lark is mirrors the bitter situation that she and Romeo are in. After Lord Capulet demands that Juliet marry Paris, even after she has married Romeo, the Nurse says that â€Å"An eagle, madam,/Hath not so green, so quick, so fair an eye/As Paris hath† (3. 5. 232-234). Though she means to compliment Paris, Nurse creates a contrast between Romeo and Paris. Unlike the tamed falcons mentioned by Romeo and Juliet, eagles are wild, and quick and eager to kill; while Romeo and Juliet’s relationship is gentle and fond, Juliet’s view of Paris is not nearly as loving. Shakespeare invokes moods fitting to particular scenes through avian imagery. Light and dark imagery in Romeo and Juliet is not particularly metaphoric; light does not always stand for good, just as dark does not invariably represent evil. Rather, Shakespeare utilizes light and dark imagery to induce sharp contrasts. For example, Benvolio tells Romeo that, at the Capulet party, he â€Å"will make thee think thy swan a crow† (1. 2. 94), as though the difference between the white feathers of the swan and the black of the crow was like the distinctiveness between Rosaline and other beauties. â€Å"O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night/As a rich jewel in an Ethiop’s ear†¦ a snowy dove trooping with crows† (1. 5. 51-55); â€Å"But soft, what light through yonder window breaks? † (2. 2. 2); â€Å"The brightness of her cheek would shame those stars/As daylight doth a lamp† (2. 2. 1-3); and â€Å"her beauty makes/This vault a feasting presence full of light† (5. 2. 85-86) are all praises that Romeo sings of Juliet. To him, she is as brilliant as light, and as different from all other people as white is from black and light is from dark. Juliet says likewise: Romeo â€Å"wilt lie upon the wings of night/Whiter than new snow upon a raven’s back† (3. 2. 19-20). She, too, believes that Romeo is one-of-a-kind and dazzling. Light and dark imagery applies to situations as well. Their love is â€Å"like the lightning† (2. 2. 126), standing out against the background of the hate and violence in the feud. After Romeo and Juliet have consummated their marriage, the daytime and the sadness is brings is the opposite of the happiness of the past night: â€Å"More light and light, more dark and dark our woes† (3. 5. 36). The light and dark imagery of Romeo and Juliet is used for sensory contrasts. Imagery, by sparking the audience’s and readers’ imaginations, is one of the most important literary devices in Romeo and Juliet. The imagery – particularly celestial, religious, avian, and light and dark – enhances the play by swaying the viewers’ moods, taking over as metaphors, and hinting at the plot. Romeo and Juliet’s storyline and language contribute equal impressions on readers and spectators. With language as beautiful as Shakespeare’s, it’s little wonder that Romeo and Juliet is one of the most popular love stories in the world.

Critical Reading, Writing, & My Learning Patterns Essay

When I was reading the four stories from the learners in chapter three, I noticed that each of them used different patterns to write their papers. Makayla was one learner that used sequence first. She was very inquiring when it came down to what she was asked to do. Makayla needed to know too much and in this case it led her to have a duel and repetitious assignment. The advice I would give Makayla would be to field fit this, trying to focus using a different learning pattern or approach. Makayla should have written her thoughts down first and not worried so much about being correct, so she would be able to provide new information and a more clearly written paper. Another way for Makayla to field fit would be to start in the middle and not focus on a specific laid out plan. Begging and end come last. While reading about the second learner John, I read that he had used precision first. In using precision first, he stumbled over everything he was trying to say and also had written too much unnecessary information. With John doing this, it led his family to confusion and made it hard to plan anything. Seeing as how this was the only way of communication for him at the time, John should have written a more simple direct message and paid more attention to whom his audience was. Field Fitting this situation can be a difficult process in the since that without all the information needed, it is hard to rearrange anything . As for his family, I would have told them to take out the extra things he had to say and try to focus more on the importance. My advice for john would be that when writing anything, make sure you know your audience, and to pay attention to what you’re writing and who you are writing it to; especially if it’s the only form of communication you have available to you. Reading the third learners stories, I see that they used technical reasoning . Paul was more concerned about completion than accuracy. In this case, I would have suggested that he try to use precision when gathering all of the data and facts, instead of just using his own thoughts and opinion s. Seeing as how he uses technical reasoning, another way for Paul to field fit this would be to draw pictures and make graphs as he was reading. This would have helped him better understand and also would have given him a visual on how to start writing his paper. With the fourth learner, Raheem relied on confluence and  took too many risks when writing his paper. He didn’t have enough information and failed to use another learning pattern that would have helped make a better paper. My advice for Raheem would be to first make sure that all of the data is collected for the assignment, then try using a different pattern when writing the paper and also tell him to ask for help if he is uncertain about the tools provided to him. Take time to prepare and use your weaknesses as a model to help find your strengths. Based on my learning patterns ( S 31 , C 20 , P 28 , TR 27 ,) the challenges I feel I will face with reading and writing at a college level is when reading, I tend to use t echnical reasoning more. I jump around and skim through content just to get the main idea. Because I do this, I overlook important pieces of information. When looking at what I can do to fix this, I see that I need to make sure I have the time to focus on what I am reading and why. Also, I need to make sure to write it all down so I am not only obtaining the information, but I am also visualizing it to get a better understanding of it as a whole. When it comes to writing, I feel that I am a strong writer. Writing is something I love to do. I always like to express my thoughts, focus on the audience, and use as much information I can. With saying that, I may sometimes use too much information, or I will use sequence and be meticulous with if it is correct or not. One way that I can help get through this is practice and make sure I’m just getting all of my thoughts out. Going back and re-reading is a good way that not only lets me see my mistakes, but it also helps me to learn from them. The three things I keep in mind to make my writing go by easier, is to write free of the rules, get all of my thoughts out first and pay attenti on to grammar and spelling last.

Mysterious Africa Essay example - 881 Words

Africa has always been mysterious to the rest of the world. The Greeks and the Romans traded with the peoples of Northern Africa. However, they thought that the land mass went no farther south than present day Somalia. In fact, Alexander the Great even considered shipping supplies for his armies around this smaller Africa to India. This same idea continued well into the 15th and 16th centuries until it was discovered that Africa has an extremely large southern protrusion making the second largest continent in the world after Asia. These vast areas used to bring Africa wealth well into the 18th and 19th centuries, trading gold, salt, and also people. Their greatest wealth actually came from this slave trade; they wouldn’t trade their†¦show more content†¦The homeless rate is helped by this and the Arab invasion of the 800’s causing it to be shameful if one didn’t help their own family and friends. It has been this way through most of history. The percepti on that Africa suddenly got poor is totally false, the rest of the world suddenly got very rich. The rest of the world was then collectively egotistic towards the Africans. The peoples of Africa were seen as backwards for the lack of writing systems, complex societies, sewer systems, et cetera that were seen in the supposedly â€Å"civilized† countries of the planet. What the world didn’t realize was that these people had been doing perfectly fine for the last several thousand years. What they also didn’t realize is that people who don’t know they could be living better generally don’t want it, until a few have it, then all want it en masse. This caused several problems directly following the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, the repercussions of which are still felt today as slowly receding echoes. In the early 19th century there was an extreme land grab, when countries started seeing Africa as a land of much wealth. 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